Chapter Four: Achievements and Obstacles Identified in the Outcomes Document

Women and poverty

Achievements: Considerable progress has been achieved in increasing the recognition of the gender dimensions of poverty and in the recognition that gender equality is one factor of specific importance for eradicating poverty, particularly in relation to the feminisation of poverty. Efforts have been made to integrate a gender perspective into poverty eradication policies and programmes by Governments, non-governmental organisations, multilateral, and international and regional financial institutions. Progress has been made by pursuing a two-pronged approach of promoting employment and income-generating activities for women and providing access to basic social services. Microcredit and other financial instruments for women have emerged as a successful strategy for economic empowerment. Policy development has taken account of the particular needs of female-headed households. Research has enhanced the understanding of the differing impacts of poverty on women and men and tools have been developed to assist with this assessment.

Obstacles: Factors such as income inequality, unemployment and deepening of poverty levels have contributed to widening economic inequality between women and men. Other problems are: debt burden, excessive military spending, unilateral coercive measures, armed conflict, foreign occupation, terrorism, low levels of official development assistance and poor use of resources. In addition, gender inequalities and disparities in economic power-sharing, unequal distribution of unremunerated work between women and men, lack of technological and financial support for women's entrepreneurship, unequal access to and control over capital, unequal access to labour markets and harmful traditional and customary practices, have constrained women's economic empowerment and exacerbated the feminisation of poverty. Fundamental economic restructuring experienced by the countries with economies in transition has led to lack of resources for poverty-eradication programmes aimed at empowerment of women.

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Education and training of women

Achievements: There is an increased awareness that education is one of the most valuable means of achieving gender equality and the empowerment of women. Progress was achieved in women's and girls' education and training at all levels, especially where there was sufficient political commitment and resource allocation. Alternative education and training systems were used to reach women and girls in indigenous communities and other disadvantaged and marginalised groups.

Obstacles: In some countries, efforts to eradicate illiteracy and strengthen literacy among women and girls were constrained by lack of resources, insufficient political will, persisting gender discrimination, gender-based occupational stereotyping, lack of childcare, persistent use of gender stereotypes in educational materials and insufficient attention paid to the link between women's enrolment in higher educational institutions and labour market dynamics. The remote location of some communities and, in some cases, inadequate salaries and benefits make attracting and retaining teaching professionals difficult. Additionally, in a number of countries, economic, social and infrastructural barriers, as well as traditional discriminatory practices, have contributed to lower enrolment and retention rates for girls. In some countries, the inappropriate design and application of structural adjustment policies has had a particularly severe impact on the education sector, since they resulted in declining investment in education infrastructure.

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Women and health

Achievements: Programmes have been implemented to create awareness among policy makers and planners of the need for health programmes to cover all aspects of women's health throughout women's life cycle, and these have contributed to an increase in life expectancy in many countries. There is increased attention to: high mortality rates among women and girls as a result of malaria, tuberculosis, water-borne diseases, communicable and diarrhoeal diseases and malnutrition; sexual and reproductive health and reproductive rights of women; sexually transmitted infections among women and girls and methods of protection; breastfeeding, nutrition, infants' and mothers' health; women's mental health; health conditions at work; environmental considerations; increased knowledge and use of family planning and contraception as well as increased awareness among men of their responsibility in these areas; the introduction of a gender perspective in health and health-related educational and physical activities; gender-specific prevention and rehabilitation programmes on substance abuse; and recognition of the specific health needs of older women.

Obstacles: World wide, the gap between and within rich and poor countries with respect to infant mortality and maternal mortality and morbidity rates, as well as with respect to measures addressing the health of women and girls, given their special vulnerability regarding sexually transmitted infections, together with endemic, infectious and communicable diseases, such as malaria, tuberculosis, diarrhoeal and water-borne diseases and chronic non-transmissible diseases, remains unacceptable. Investment in essential obstetric care remains insufficient in many countries. The absence of an holistic approach to health and health care for women and girls based on women's right to the enjoyment of the highest attainable standard of physical and mental health throughout the life cycle has constrained progress. The predominant focus of health-care systems on treating illness rather than maintaining optimal health also prevents an holistic approach. There is, in some countries, insufficient attention to the role of social and economic determinants of health, a lack of gender-specific health research and technology and insufficient gender sensitivity in the provision of health information and health care and health services. Poverty and the lack of development continue to affect the capacity of many developing countries to provide and expand quality health care.

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A shortage of financial and human resources, in particular in developing countries, as well as restructuring of the health sector and/or the increasing trend to privatisation of health-care systems in some cases, has resulted in poor quality, reduced and insufficient health-care services, and has also led to less attention to the health of the most vulnerable groups of women. Obstacles to an improved health result for women include unequal power relationships between women and men, in which women often do not have the power to insist on safe and responsible sex practices, and a lack of communication and understanding between men and women on women's health needs. Adolescents, particularly adolescent girls, continue to lack access to sexual and reproductive health information, education and services. Women who are recipients of health care are frequently not treated with respect nor guaranteed privacy and confidentiality, and do not receive full information about options and services available. In some cases, health services and workers still do not conform to human rights nor to ethical, professional and gender-sensitive standards in the delivery of women's health services, nor do they ensure responsible, voluntary and informed consent. The testing and development of male contraceptives is still insufficient. The recommendations of the Platform for Action regarding the health impact of unsafe abortion and the need to reduce the recourse to abortion have not been fully implemented. The rising incidence of tobacco use among women, particularly young women, has increased their risk of cancer and other serious diseases.

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Violence against women

Achievements: It is widely accepted that violence against women and girls, whether occurring in public or private life, is a human rights issue. It is also accepted that States have an obligation to exercise due diligence to prevent, investigate and punish acts of violence and provide protection to victims. There is increased awareness of and commitment to preventing and combating violence against women and girls through improved legislation, policies and programmes. Governments have initiated policy reforms and mechanisms to address violence. Some Governments have also introduced or reformed laws to protect women and girls from all forms of violence and laws to prosecute the perpetrators. There is an increasing recognition at all levels that violence against women affects their health. Some progress has been made in the provision of services for abused women and children, including legal services, shelters, special health services and counselling, hotlines and police units with special training. Education for law enforcement personnel, members of the judiciary, health-care providers and welfare workers is being promoted. Educational materials for women and public awareness campaigns have been developed as well as research on the root causes of violence. Successful co-operation has been achieved between governmental and non-governmental organisations in the field of preventing violence against women. The active support of civil society, in particular women's organisations and NGOs, has had an important role in promoting awareness-raising campaigns and in the provision of support services to women victims of violence. Efforts towards the eradication of harmful traditional practices, including female genital mutilation, have received national, regional and international policy support. Many Governments have introduced educational and outreach programmes, as well as legislative measures banning these practices.

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Obstacles: Women continue to be victims of various forms of violence. Inadequate understanding of the root causes of all forms of violence against women and girls hinders efforts to eliminate violence against them. There is a lack of comprehensive programmes dealing with the perpetrators, including programmes, where appropriate, which would enable them to solve problems without violence. Inadequate data on violence further impedes informed policy-making and analysis. Sociocultural attitudes which are discriminatory and economic inequalities reinforce women's subordinate place in society which makes women and girls vulnerable to many forms of violence. In many countries, a co-ordinated multidisciplinary approach to responding to violence which includes the health system, workplaces, the media, the education system, as well as the justice system, is still limited. Domestic violence, including sexual violence in marriage, is still treated as a private matter in some countries. Insufficient awareness of the consequences of domestic violence, how to prevent it and the rights of victims still exists. Although improving, the legal and legislative measures, especially in the criminal justice area, to eliminate different forms of violence against women and children are weak in many countries. Prevention strategies also remain fragmented and reactive and there is a lack of programmes on these issues. In some countries, problems have arisen from the use of new technologies for trafficking in women and children and for all forms of economic and sexual exploitation.

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Women and armed conflict

Achievements: There is a wider recognition that armed conflict has different destructive impacts on women and men and that a gender-sensitive approach to the application of international human rights law and international humanitarian law is important. Steps have been taken at the national and international levels to address abuses against women, including increased attention to ending impunity for crimes against women in situations of armed conflict. Women's contribution in the areas of peace-building, peacemaking and conflict resolution is being increasingly recognised. Education and training in non-violent conflict resolution have been introduced. Progress has been made on the dissemination and implementation of the guidelines for the protection of refugee women, and on addressing the needs of displaced women. Gender-based persecution has been accepted as a basis for refugee status in some countries. There is recognition by Governments, the international community and organisations, in particular the United Nations, that women and men experience humanitarian emergencies differently, and there is a need for a more holistic support for refugee and displaced women. There is greater recognition of the need to integrate a gender perspective in the planning, design and implementation of humanitarian assistance and to provide adequate resources.

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Obstacles: Peace is inextricably linked to equality between women and men and development. Armed and other types of conflicts, wars of aggression, foreign occupation, colonial or other alien domination, as well as terrorism, continue to cause serious obstacles to the advancement of women. The targeting of civilians the displacement of people, and the recruitment of child soldiers have had a particularly adverse impact on gender equality and women's human rights. Armed conflict creates or exacerbates the high level of female-headed households, which in many cases are living in poverty. The under-representation of women in decision-making positions in peacekeeping, peace-building, post-conflict reconciliation and reconstruction, as well as lack of gender awareness in these areas, presents serious obstacles. There has been a failure to provide sufficient resources, to adequately distribute those resources and to address the needs of increasing numbers of refugees, who are mostly women and children, particularly to developing countries hosting large numbers of refugees.

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The growing number of internally displaced persons and the provision of their needs continue to represent a double burden to the affected countries and their financial resources. Inadequate training of personnel dealing with the needs of women in situations of armed conflict or as refugees remains a problem.

Excessive military spending directs funds away from social and economic development, in particular for the advancement of women. In several countries, economic sanctions have had social and humanitarian impacts on the civilian population, in particular women and children.

There has been an increase in all forms of violence against women, including sexual slavery, rape, systematic rape, sexual abuse and forced pregnancies, in situations of armed conflict. Girls are also abducted or recruited, in violation of international law, into situations of armed conflict, including as combatants, sexual slaves or providers of domestic services.

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Women and the economy

Achievements: There is increased participation of women in the labour market and subsequent gain in economic autonomy. Some Governments have introduced measures addressing women's economic and social rights. Other measures include the ratification of international labour conventions as well as enacting or strengthening legislation to make it compatible with these conventions. There is increased awareness of the need to reconcile employment and family responsibilities. Some Governments have made provisions to address discriminatory and abusive behaviour in the workplace and to prevent unhealthy working conditions and have established funding mechanisms to promote women's roles in entrepreneurship, education and training and decision-making. Research has been conducted on barriers to economic empowerment faced by women and tools are being developed to break these down.

Obstacles: The importance of a gender perspective in the development of macroeconomic policy is still not widely recognised. Many women still work in rural areas, in the informal economy and in the service sector with low levels of income and little job and social security. The gender wage gap continues in the formal sector. Gender discrimination in hiring and promotion and sexual harassment in the workplace persist. In some countries, women's full and equal rights to own land and other property is not yet recognised in legislation. Progression in the professions, in most cases, is still more difficult for women, due to the lack of structures that take family responsibilities into account. In some cases, persistent gender stereotyping has led to a lower status of male workers as fathers and to an insufficient encouragement for men to reconcile professional and family responsibilities. Effective implementation of legislation and practical support systems is still inadequate. Women still perform the larger part of unremunerated work.

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Women in power and decision-making

Achievements: There has been growing acceptance of the importance to society of the full participation of women in decision-making and power at all levels and in all forums. In some countries, women have also attained higher positions in these spheres. An increasing number of countries have applied affirmative and positive action policies and measures to reconcile family and work responsibilities. National mechanisms for the advancement of women as well as national and international networks of women politicians, parliamentarians, activists and professionals in various fields have been established or upgraded and strengthened.

Obstacles: Despite general acceptance of the need for a gender balance in decision-making bodies at all levels, a gap between de jure and de facto equality has persisted. The participation of women at the highest levels of national and international decision-making has not significantly changed since the time of the Fourth World Conference on Women in 1995, and gross under-representation of women in decision-making bodies in all areas, including politics, conflict prevention and resolution mechanisms, the economy, the environment and the media, hinders the inclusion of a gender perspective in these critical spheres of influence. Women continue to be under-represented at the legislative, ministerial and sub-ministerial levels, as well as at the highest levels of the corporate sector and other economic and social institutions. Traditionally assigned gender roles limit women's choices in education and careers and compel women to assume the burden for household responsibilities. Initiatives and programmes aimed at increasing women's participation in decision-making were hindered by a lack of resources, gender-sensitive attitudes, lack of awareness of women to engage in decision-making, lack of accountability of elected officials and political parties for promoting gender equality, lack of social awareness of the importance of balanced participation of women and men in decision-making, unwillingness on the part of men to share power, and insufficient dialogue and co-operation with women's NGOs.

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Institutional mechanisms for the advancement of women

Achievements: National machineries have been instituted or strengthened and recognised as the institutional base acting as "catalysts" for promoting gender equality, gender mainstreaming and monitoring of the implementation of the Platform for Action and CEDAW. Gender mainstreaming has been widely acknowledged as a strategy to enhance the impact of policies to promote gender equality. These machineries have made a significant contribution to the development of human resources in the field of gender studies and have also contributed to the growing efforts for the generation and dissemination of data disaggregated by sex and age, gender-sensitive research and documentation.

Obstacles: In a number of countries, inadequate financial and human resources and a lack of political will and commitment are the main obstacles confronting national machineries. This is further exacerbated by insufficient understanding of gender equality and gender mainstreaming among government structures, as well as prevailing gender stereotypes, discriminatory attitudes, competing government priorities and, in some countries, unclear mandates, a marginalised location within the national government structures, lack of data disaggregated by sex and age in many areas and insufficiently applied methods for assessing progress, in addition to paucity of authority and insufficient links to civil society. The activities of the national machineries were also hindered by structural and communication problems within and among government agencies.

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Human rights of women

Achievements: Legal reforms have been undertaken to prohibit all forms of discrimination and discriminatory provisions have been eliminated in civil, penal and personal status law governing marriage and family relations, all forms of violence, women's property and ownership rights and women's political, work and employment rights. Steps have been taken to realise women's de facto enjoyment of their human rights through the creation of an enabling environment, including the adoption of policy measures, the improvement of enforcement and monitoring mechanisms and the implementation of legal literacy and awareness campaigns at all levels. Women's NGOs have also generated support for the inclusion of a gender perspective in the elaboration of the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court.

Obstacles: Gender discrimination and all other forms of discrimination, in particular racism, racial discrimination, xenophobia and related intolerance continue to threaten women's enjoyment of their human rights and fundamental freedoms. In situations of armed conflict and foreign occupation, human rights of women have been extensively violated. Even though a number of countries have ratified the CEDAW, the goal of universal ratification by the year 2000 has not been achieved, and there continue to be a large number of reservations to the Convention.

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Family, civil, penal, labour and commercial laws or codes, or administrative rules and regulations, still have not fully integrated a gender perspective. Legislative and regulatory gaps, as well as lack of implementation and enforcement of legislation and regulations perpetuate inequality and discrimination and in a few cases new laws discriminating against women have been introduced.

In many countries, women have insufficient access to the law because of lack of legal literacy, lack of information and resources, insensitivity and gender bias and lack of awareness of the human rights of women by law enforcement officials and the judiciary. There is insufficient recognition of women's and girls' reproductive rights. Some women and girls continue to encounter barriers to justice and the enjoyment of their human rights because of such factors as their race, language, ethnicity, culture, religion, disability or socio-economic class or because they are indigenous people, migrants, including women migrant workers, displaced women or refugees.

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Women and the media

Achievements: The establishment of local, national and international women's media networks has contributed to global information dissemination, exchange of views and support to women's groups active in media work. The development of information and communication technologies, especially the Internet, has provided improved communication opportunities for the empowerment of women and girls. The number of women's media organisations and programmes has increased, facilitating the aims of increased participation and promotion of positive portrayals of women in the media. Progress has been made to combat negative images of women by establishing professional guidelines and voluntary codes of conduct, encouraging fair gender portrayal and the use of non-sexist language in media programmes.

Obstacles: Negative, violent and/or degrading images of women, including pornography and stereotyped portrayals, have increased in different forms using new communication technologies in some instances, and bias against women remains in the media. Poverty, the lack of access and opportunities, illiteracy, lack of computer literacy and language barriers prevent some women from using the information and communication technologies. Development of and access to Internet infrastructure is limited, especially in developing countries and particularly for women.

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Women and the environment

Achievements: Some national environment policies and programmes have incorporated gender perspectives. In recognition of the link between gender equality, poverty eradication, sustainable development and environment protection, Governments have included income-generating activities for women, as well as training in natural resource management and environmental protection in their development strategies. Projects have been launched to preserve and utilise women's traditional ecological knowledge, including the traditional ecological knowledge of indigenous women, in the management of natural resources and the preservation of biodiversity.

Obstacles: There is still a lack of public awareness about environmental risks faced by women and of the benefits of gender equality for promoting environmental protection. Women's limited access to technical skills, resources and information, in particular in developing countries, have impeded women's effective participation in decision-making regarding the sustainable environment. Research, action, targeted strategies and public awareness remain limited regarding the differential impacts and implications of environmental problems for women and men.

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The girl child

Achievements : Some progress was made in primary and, to a lesser extent, secondary and tertiary education for girls, owing to the creation of a more gender-sensitive school environment, improved educational infrastructure, increased enrolment and retention, support mechanisms for pregnant adolescents and adolescent mothers, increased non-formal education opportunities and enhanced attendance at science and technology classes. Increased attention was given to the health of the girl child, including the sexual and reproductive health of adolescents. An increasing number of countries introduced legislation to ban female genital mutilation and imposed heavier penalties on those involved in sexual abuse, trafficking and all other forms of exploitation of the girl child.

Obstacles: The persistence of poverty, discriminatory attitudes towards women and girls, negative cultural attitudes and practices against girls, negative stereotyping of girls and boys, inadequate awareness of the specific situation of the girl child, child labour and the heavy burden of domestic responsibilities on girls, inadequate nutrition and access to health services, and lack of finance have contributed to a lack of opportunities and possibilities for girls to become confident, self-reliant, independent adults. Programmes for the girl child were hindered by a lack of or an insufficient allocation of financial and human resources. There were few established national mechanisms to implement policies and programmes for the girl child and, in some cases, co-ordination among responsible institutions was insufficient. The increased awareness of the health needs of adolescents has not yet resulted in sufficient provision of necessary information and services. Despite advances in legal protection, there is increased sexual abuse and sexual exploitation of the girl child. Adolescents continue to lack the education and services needed to enable them to deal in a positive and responsible way with their sexuality.

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